Everything below concerns creatinine. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2025-08-12. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
In animals, creatine is synthesized mainly in liver, kidney, and pancreas from arginine, glycine, and methionine. The first committed step transfers a guanidino group from arginine to glycine, forming guanidinoacetate. Subsequent methylation by S-adenosylmethionine yields creatine. Dietary sources include meat and fish; endogenous synthesis supplies part of the body pool. Most creatine is stored in skeletal muscle, where it is converted to phosphocreatine and participates in rapid regeneration of adenosine triphosphate during short, intense activity.
Commercial creatine products appear in several forms, including monohydrate, hydrochloride, citrate, nitrate, and ethyl ester. Creatine monohydrate is the most studied form and serves as a reference material in comparative research. Different forms vary in solubility, pH, and water content, but they share creatine as the active moiety after dissolution. Claims that one form is uniformly superior remain debated, and study designs often differ in population, exercise protocol, and outcome measures. Purity and hydration state are central to interpreting product labels.
Creatine monohydrate is one of several solid forms of creatine described in the literature. Other forms include anhydrous creatine, creatine hydrochloride, and creatine ethyl ester, each with different solubility and stability characteristics. The monohydrate is distinct from creatinine, a spontaneous breakdown compound that forms when creatine loses water and cyclizes. Commercial descriptions sometimes use synonyms such as methylguanidoacetic acid or N-(aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine, which refer to the same base molecule. These names appear in chemical databases and product labels.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed when one molecule of creatine binds with one molecule of water. Creatine itself is a nitrogen-containing organic acid involved in cellular energy transfer, particularly in muscle and nerve tissue. The monohydrate form is the most common solid form used in research and commercial products because it is relatively stable and easy to handle. Its molecular formula is C4H9N3O2·H2O, and its molar mass is about 149.15 grams per mole.
In the human body, creatine is synthesized mainly in the liver and kidneys from the amino acids glycine, arginine, and methionine. Dietary sources include meat, fish, and other animal tissues, which supply preformed creatine. Because plant foods contain little or no creatine, dietary intake varies widely among populations. The compound is stored largely in skeletal muscle, where it is converted to phosphocreatine and used to regenerate adenosine triphosphate during short bursts of activity.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical formula (monohydrate) | C4H11N3O3 | Includes one water molecule per creatine unit. |
| Molecular weight | 149.15 g/mol | Calculated for the monohydrate; anhydrous creatine is 131.13 g/mol. |
| Appearance | White crystalline powder | Odorless; particle size can vary by manufacturing. |
| CAS Registry Number | 6020-87-7 | Identifies creatine monohydrate; creatine base is 57-00-1. |
| Common synonyms | Creatine hydrate; methylguanidoacetic acid monohydrate | Naming varies by registry and supplier. |
Laboratory analysis of creatine monohydrate typically uses high-performance liquid chromatography to separate creatine from creatinine and other impurities. Detection may be ultraviolet, refractive index, or mass spectrometric, depending on the laboratory's equipment and the required sensitivity. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can quantify the main component and identify related substances. Water content is measured by Karl Fischer titration, which is important because the monohydrate has a defined theoretical hydration level. Heavy metals, residual solvents, and microbial limits are also checked in quality control programs.
Commercial creatine monohydrate is produced mainly by chemical synthesis rather than extraction from animal tissue. Suppliers provide a certificate of analysis listing assay, water content, and impurity limits, and some products undergo third-party testing. Verification of identity can use infrared or Raman spectroscopy alongside chromatographic methods. Storage recommendations generally call for a cool, dry place and a tightly closed container to limit moisture uptake. Open questions include how packaging, flavoring agents, and long-term storage affect the stability of finished products.
Creatine monohydrate is stable under dry, cool conditions but can degrade when exposed to moisture and heat. In solution, it undergoes hydrolysis to creatinine, a cyclic derivative with little role in phosphagen energy transfer. The rate of conversion increases with temperature, storage time, and acidic or alkaline pH. Solid material kept in a sealed container at room temperature generally retains its composition for extended periods. Moisture uptake is a primary concern because it can accelerate breakdown and caking.
Analytical laboratories commonly use high-performance liquid chromatography to separate creatine from creatinine and related impurities. Ion chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and titration assays can also quantify the compound. Water content is measured by Karl Fischer titration or loss on drying, because the monohydrate has a defined theoretical water fraction. Particle size, bulk density, and flowability are physical properties that affect blending and capsule filling. These measurements support quality control and help verify that a lot matches its specification.
==== Viruses ==== Viral infections as well as endogenized viruses are the subject of ongoing research as factors in autoimmunity. In the case of multiple sclerosis. a large prospective study of US military personnel found that Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) infection precedes onset and raises subsequent risk roughly 32-fold, and later work suggests that whether infection goes on to cause disease depends on inherited differences in how well NK cells and EBV-specific T cells clear the autoreactive cells it produces, combined with differences between EBV strains in their ability to evade that response. A second route to viral autoimmunity may involve endogenous viral elements, more commonly HERVs, which are remnants of ancient viruses that underwent endogenization and became fixed in the human genome. Sporadic reactivation of HERV-W elements, or an alteration in HERV expression has been associated with autoimmunity in systemic lupus erythematosus. and HERV reactivation has been proposed, more speculatively, as a contributor to rheumatoid arthritis through molecular mimicry. Reviews caution, however, that an actual causal role for HERVs in autoimmune disease remains unclear.
== Reception == The level's originality and tonal shift caused it to stand out to critics. GamesRadar+ journalist Alex Avard praised "We Don't Go To Ravenholm..." as an example of a horror sequence in a non-horror game, describing it as "harrowing" and a "blood-soaked frightfest". Fellow GamesRadar+ journalist Ashley Reed praised the game's inclusion of "Zombie Chopper", an achievement which forced the player to beat the entire level employing only the Gravity Gun, arguing that not using weapons forced them to think creatively about how to proceed through the level, turning to items such as saw blades as improvised weaponry and employing strategies such as fleeing the zombies before they could notice the character's presence. The level was also praised for its effective use of horror elements. Den of Geek journalist Matthew Byrd described Ravenholm as "the perfect horror level", stating that it both served as a send up of horror tropes and effectively utilized them to scare the player. Suggesting that it "just happened to be the perfect idea released at the perfect time", Byrd further stated that some elements of the level "certainly don't feel quite as groundbreaking" 15 years later as they did upon the game's release. PC Gamer journalist Andy Kelly included the game on the list of his best first-person shooter levels ever, calling it "a tense, terrifying gauntlet" and "probably the best level Valve has ever designed". Screen Rant journalist Padraig Cotter argued that the level was "arguably the game's most famous" and had a "perfect balance" of horror and action.
Machine learning applications can be biased if they learn from biased data. The developers may not be aware that the bias exists. Discriminatory behaviour by some LLMs can be observed in their output. Bias can be introduced by the way training data is selected and by the way a model is deployed. If a biased algorithm is used to make decisions that can seriously harm people (as it can in medicine, finance, recruitment, housing or policing) then the algorithm may cause discrimination. The field of fairness studies how to prevent harms from algorithmic biases. On 28 June 2015, Google Photos's new image labelling feature mistakenly identified Jacky Alcine and a friend as "gorillas" because they were black. The system was trained on a dataset that contained very few images of black people, a problem called "sample size disparity". Google "fixed" this problem by preventing the system from labelling anything as a "gorilla". Eight years later, in 2023, Google Photos still could not identify a gorilla, and neither could similar products from Apple, Facebook, Microsoft and Amazon. COMPAS is a commercial program widely used by U.S. courts to assess the likelihood of a defendant becoming a recidivist. In 2016, Julia Angwin at ProPublica discovered that COMPAS exhibited racial bias, despite the fact that the program was not told the races of the defendants.
Their boat became increasingly crowded with both people and creatures.Humboldt observed the behavior and intelligence of his animals, especially the titi monkeys, which displayed childlike expressions and intelligence. Despite the inconvenience, the animals provided diversion from constant insect attacks. The next day, the group stopped at Culimacari rock, where Humboldt made precise astronomical observations. This confirmed the Casiquiare’s position and its function as the world’s only natural canal linking two major river systems, the Orinoco and the Amazon. The Casiquiare’s existence had long been denied in Europe, though local knowledge and previous Spanish exploration had already established its reality. Departing Culimacari early on 12 May, the expedition faced a strong current and slow progress. At the mission of Mandavaca, Humboldt found a missionary who spoke of his isolation and the small, scattered Native population. He also described acts of violence and cannibalism among the local peoples, which Humboldt later confirmed through conversation with a Native assistant. The journey along the Casiquiare became increasingly difficult. Food was scarce, and the group survived on ants and dry cacao mixed with river water. Spirits remained intact as the expedition neared the Orinoco. On 20 May, a jaguar carried off their dog during the night, causing distress. On 21 May the party rejoined the Orinoco, now able to travel downstream toward Angostura. Humboldt predicted commercial importance for the Casiquiare, but this vision was never realized.
== Security == A wallet may have known and unknown vulnerabilities. A supply chain attack or side-channel attack are ways of introducing vulnerabilities. In extreme cases a computer which is not connected to any network can be hacked. To mitigate the risk of crypto wallet hacking, one can choose for a cold wallet, which remains offline and disconnected from the internet. A cold wallet refers to a physical device, such as a pen drive, that is utilized as a secure storage medium for transferring money from a hot wallet. Cold wallets have also been hacked. In late July 2026, cold wallet manufacturer Coinkite disclosed that a bug in software used on its devices allowed hackers to access cold wallets. This hack has lead to losses of approximately $130 million as of early August 2026.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Di(2-propylheptyl) phthalate (also known as bis(2-propylheptyl) benzene-1,2-dicarboxylate, di(propylheptyl) orthophthalate, or DPHP) is an organic compound with the formula C28H46O4. It is a phthalate and is the diester of phthalic acid and the 10-carbon branched-chain alcohol 2-propylheptanol. This colorless, viscous liquid is used for softening PVC plastics and is a general purpose PVC plasticizer. It possesses very good plasticizing properties and may be used as a direct replacement for DEHP and DINP in many applications.
alpha-decay -> strong interaction, beta-decay -> weak interaction, gamma-decay -> electromagnetism. In alpha decay, a particle containing two protons and two neutrons, equivalent to a He nucleus, breaks out of the parent nucleus. The process represents a competition between the electromagnetic repulsion between the protons in the nucleus and attractive nuclear force, a residual of the strong interaction. The alpha particle is an especially strongly bound nucleus, helping it win the competition more often. However some nuclei break up or fission into larger particles and artificial nuclei decay with the emission of single protons, double protons, and other combinations. Beta decay transforms a neutron into proton or vice versa. When a neutron inside a parent nuclide decays to a proton, an electron, an anti-neutrino, and nuclide with higher atomic number results. When a proton in a parent nuclide transforms to a neutron, a positron, a neutrino, and nuclide with a lower atomic number results. These changes are a direct manifestation of the weak interaction. Gamma decay resembles other kinds of electromagnetic emission: it corresponds to transitions between an excited quantum state and lower energy state. Any of the particle decay mechanisms often leave the daughter in an excited state, which then decays via gamma emission. Other forms of decay include neutron emission, electron capture, internal conversion, cluster decay.
== Health and safety regulations == According to Merck Life Science UK 2020 Safety Data Sheet provided to the European Chemicals Agency's Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)—a 2006 European Union regulation, ethylene oxide is "presumed to have carcinogenic potential for humans." The United States EPA published an advance notice of proposed rulemaking (NPRM) in the 12 December 2019 Federal Register seeking to limit EtO emissions. Over the next couple of years, information was collected and a proposed air toxics rule published in the 13 April 2023 Federal Register. Following a 60 day comment period that could be extended, due to many comments requesting an extension, the EPA rules that could reduce EtO emissions, both direct and fugitive, by over 80% could be implemented within 18 months of publishing the final rule in the Federal Register. Laboratory EtO emitters would still be exempt from the stricter compliance. Additionally, while effectively curbing EtO emissions in the USA, many industrial emitters may simply shift their EtO production to nearby less strict countries: Canada, Mexico, etc. In 2024, U.S. probed claims that popular Indian curry brands MDH and Everest Spices carried ethylene oxide after Hong Kong and Singapore found the contamination in the products and took enforcement actions against them.
Melitta Schmideberg-Klein (née Klein; 17 January 1904 – 10 February 1983), author of numerous books, academic papers and monographs; physician, psychiatrist, and psychoanalyst; daughter of leading psychoanalyst Melanie Klein; associate member of British Psychoanalytical Society and underwent analysis with Edward Glover, Hanna Segal (1918–2011), psychoanalyst of Polish Jewish descent; follower of Melanie Klein; president of British Psychoanalytical Society, vice-president of International Psychoanalytical Association; was appointed to the Freud Memorial Chair at University College, London (UCL); considered the doyen of "classical" Kleinian thinking and technique" and "one of the most distinguished psychological theorists of our time " Judah Segal, FBA (21 June 1912 – 23 October 2003, prolific author, scholar and academic; Professor of Semitic Languages at the School of Oriental and African Studies.His father was Professor Moshe Zvi Segal, Israeli rabbi, linguist and Talmudic scholar; his brother was Labour Party politician Samuel Segal; father of University of London scholar, Professor Naomi Segal. Lynne Segal (born 29 March 1944) socialist feminist academic and activist; author of over ten books and numerous scholarly monographs on ideology and geopolitics; Professor of Psychology and Gender Studies at Birkbeck, University of London, where she now works in The School of Psychosocial Studies.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Reduced food waste === Worldwide, one third of the total food produced for consumption, around 1.6 billion tons per year, goes to waste. Food waste happens during processing, distribution and consumption. 3D food printing is a very promising way of reducing food waste during the phase of consumption, by utilizing food products like meat off-cuts, distorted fruits and vegetables, sea food by-products and perishables. These products can be processed in a suitable form for printing. Upprinting Food, a Dutch startup, has been blending and combining different ingredients from food waste to create purees which are then used as materials for 3D printing. Chefs are also creating different dishes from leftover food using 3D food printers.
Globally, as of 2010, approximately 250 million people had osteoarthritis of the knee (3.6% of the population). Hip osteoarthritis affects about 0.85% of the population. As of 2004, osteoarthritis globally causes moderate to severe disability in 43.4 million people. Together, knee and hip osteoarthritis had a ranking for disability globally of 11th among 291 disease conditions assessed.
Also in 2015, Chipotle stopped using genetically modified corn and soybeans in their foods, claiming to be the first nationwide restaurant to cook completely GMO free. However, in 2019, Chipotle paid $6.5 million to settle a lawsuit where the plaintiffs claimed that the company's food "may have been sourced from livestock that consumed GMO animal feed". In 2017, Chipotle committed to transitioning away from birds bred to maximize growth at the expense of animal well-being. However, in 2024, investigations by animal welfare groups showed that they were failing to meet these standards.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Creatine is the base compound, while creatine monohydrate includes one water molecule per creatine molecule in its crystal structure. The monohydrate form is common in supplements and analytical standards. The body uses creatine itself after the water is removed or dissociated.
Yes. Meat, fish, and other animal tissues contain creatine. Cooking can convert some creatine to creatinine, which has no role in phosphocreatine energy buffering. Plant foods contain little or no creatine.
Creatinine is a cyclic breakdown product formed from creatine and phosphocreatine. It is filtered by the kidneys and commonly measured in blood and urine as a marker of renal function. Creatine monohydrate is a supplement ingredient and research chemical, not the same molecule.
Creatine monohydrate is the hydrated solid form of creatine, a nitrogen-containing compound involved in cellular energy metabolism. It consists of one creatine molecule associated with one water molecule in a crystal lattice.