Everything below concerns Nitrogenous organic acid. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2026-02-01. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
In the body, creatine is synthesized from the amino acids arginine, glycine, and methionine, primarily in the liver and kidneys. It is transported to muscle and other tissues, where it is phosphorylated to phosphocreatine by creatine kinase. This phosphagen system provides a rapid source of adenosine triphosphate during short, intense contractions. Dietary creatine comes mainly from meat and fish, and the body's total pool is influenced by both synthesis and intake.
As a supplement, creatine monohydrate is studied for its effects on muscle performance and recovery. The compound is often described as an ergogenic aid, meaning it may support physical work capacity. Research typically compares it with placebo or other forms, such as citrate or nitrate, under controlled conditions. Questions remain about the optimal dose and long-term effects in different populations, and findings are not uniform across all studies. The monohydrate form remains the most extensively tested.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed from creatine and one molecule of water. Its systematic name is N-(aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine monohydrate, and it appears as a white, odorless powder with limited solubility in water. The monohydrate is the most common solid form used in research and commercial products because it is stable under dry conditions. The anhydrous form lacks the water of crystallization and differs slightly in molar mass. Both forms participate in the same biochemical reactions once dissolved.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed when one molecule of creatine binds with one molecule of water. Creatine itself is a nitrogen-containing organic acid involved in cellular energy transfer, particularly in muscle and nerve tissue. The monohydrate form is the most common solid form used in research and commercial products because it is relatively stable and easy to handle. Its molecular formula is C4H9N3O2·H2O, and its molar mass is about 149.15 grams per mole.
In the human body, creatine is synthesized mainly in the liver and kidneys from the amino acids glycine, arginine, and methionine. Dietary sources include meat, fish, and other animal tissues, which supply preformed creatine. Because plant foods contain little or no creatine, dietary intake varies widely among populations. The compound is stored largely in skeletal muscle, where it is converted to phosphocreatine and used to regenerate adenosine triphosphate during short bursts of activity.
Creatine monohydrate is one of several solid forms of creatine described in the literature. Other forms include anhydrous creatine, creatine hydrochloride, and creatine ethyl ester, each with different solubility and stability characteristics. The monohydrate is distinct from creatinine, a spontaneous breakdown compound that forms when creatine loses water and cyclizes. Commercial descriptions sometimes use synonyms such as methylguanidoacetic acid or N-(aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine, which refer to the same base molecule. These names appear in chemical databases and product labels.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical formula | C4H9N3O2·H2O | Monohydrate form; anhydrous is C4H9N3O2 |
| Molar mass | 149.15 g/mol | For the monohydrate |
| Appearance | White crystalline powder | Odorless, slightly bitter taste |
| Solubility in water | ~13 g/L at 25 °C | Poorly soluble; increases with temperature |
| CAS Registry Number | 6020-87-7 | For creatine monohydrate |
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline organic compound formed from creatine and water in a one-to-one ratio. It belongs to the guanidino family and contains a methylated guanidine group attached to an acetate-like chain. The solid is commonly described as a white, odorless powder with a mildly bitter taste. Its molecular formula is C4H11N3O3·H2O, and the hydrated form is the most widely traded grade. The compound occurs naturally in vertebrate muscle and brain tissue, where it participates in rapid energy buffering.
In aqueous solution, creatine monohydrate exists mainly as a zwitterion, carrying both a positive guanidinium charge and a negative carboxylate charge. This charge separation raises water solubility relative to many neutral organic solids and helps explain its behavior in analytical separations. The monohydrate can lose its water of crystallization under sustained heat or low humidity, converting toward anhydrous creatine. Such transitions matter for mass balance calculations because the hydrate contributes water mass that is not part of the active creatine molecule.
The term creatine monohydrate is often shortened to creatine in casual usage, though other creatine forms exist, including citrate, nitrate, and hydrochloride salts. These alternative forms differ in solubility, pH behavior, and the amount of creatine delivered per unit mass. Regulatory categories vary by country: some jurisdictions treat it as a food ingredient, while others place it under supplement or drug frameworks depending on claims and presentation. Standard reference texts list it as a naturally occurring nitrogenous organic acid rather than a vitamin or mineral.
== Efficacy and side effects == DBNPA was used to limit bacterial growth in different water applications, such as cooling water and paper processing. In these applications, positive application of DBNPA were instantaneous antimicrobial activity and rapid chemical breakdown into relatively non-toxic by-products. These applications could be beneficial in the ethanol industry
Glycolysis – The first stage is known as glycolysis, which produces 2 ATP molecules, 2 reduced molecules of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and 2 pyruvate molecules that move on to the next stage – the Krebs cycle. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of normal body cells, or the sarcoplasm of muscle cells. The Krebs cycle – This is the second stage, and the products of this stage of the aerobic system are a net production of one ATP, one carbon dioxide molecule, three reduced NAD+ molecules, and one reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) molecule. (The molecules of NAD+ and FAD mentioned here are electron carriers, and if they are reduced, they have had one or two H+ ions and two electrons added to them.) The metabolites are for each turn of the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle turns twice for each six-carbon molecule of glucose that passes through the aerobic system – as two three-carbon pyruvate molecules enter the Krebs cycle. Before pyruvate enters the Krebs cycle it must be converted to acetyl coenzyme A. During this link reaction, for each molecule of pyruvate converted to acetyl coenzyme A, a NAD+ is also reduced. This stage of the aerobic system takes place in the matrix of the cells' mitochondria. Oxidative phosphorylation – The last stage of the aerobic system produces the largest yield of ATP – a total of 34 ATP molecules. It is called oxidative phosphorylation because oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons and hydrogen ions (hence oxidative) and an extra phosphate is added to ADP to form ATP (hence phosphorylation).
In November 1944, 3 Squadron RAAF became the first Royal Australian Air Force unit to use Mustangs. At the time of its conversion from the P-40 to the Mustang, the squadron was based in Italy with the RAF's Desert Air Force. 3 Squadron was renumbered 4 Squadron after returning to Australia from Italy, and converted to P-51Ds. Several other Australian or Pacific-based squadrons converted to either CAC-built Mustangs or to imported P-51Ks from July 1945, having been equipped with P-40s or Boomerangs for wartime service; these units were: 76, 77, 82, 83, 84 and 86 squadrons. Only 17 Mustangs reached the RAAF's First Tactical Air Force front-line squadrons by the time World War II ended in August 1945. 76, 77 and 82 squadrons were formed into 81 Fighter Wing of the British Commonwealth Air Force, which was part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force stationed in Japan from February 1946. 77 Squadron used its P-51s extensively during the first months of the Korean War, before converting to Gloster Meteor jets. Five reserve units from the Citizen Air Force also operated Mustangs. 21 "City of Melbourne" Squadron, based in the state of Victoria; 22 "City of Sydney" Squadron, based in New South Wales; 23 "City of Brisbane" Squadron, based in Queensland; 24 "City of Adelaide" Squadron, based in South Australia; and 25 "City of Perth" Squadron, based in Western Australia; all of these units were equipped with CAC Mustangs, rather than P-51D or Ks. The last Mustangs were retired from these units in 1960 when CAF units adopted a nonflying role. Bolivia
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
On 17 September, at least 12 people were killed and more than 2,750 were wounded, including Hezbollah members and civilians, after the explosions of their pagers in Lebanon and Syria, including in Beirut. The attack resulted in 1,500 fighters being taken out of action, with many facing blindness or losing their hands. Among those injured was the Iranian ambassador, Mojtaba Amani. Several drones launched from Lebanon crossed the border. Hezbollah confirmed the death of 12 militants on that day. Also on 17 September, the Shin Bet claimed that it thwarted a Hezbollah attempt for assassinate a former senior defence official with a Claymore mine. On 18 September another series of explosions involving wireless devices was reported across Lebanon, killing at least 30 people and injuring 750 others. Hezbollah said that it carried out four strikes targeting IDF sites including in Neve Ziv and Beit Hillel with rockets and artillery. Lebanese media reported that Israeli strikes struck Al-Jbeen, Shama, Majdal Zoun, Kfar Kila, Kfar Shiuba, Houla, al-Taybeh, the forest in the vicinity of Kounine and Beit Yahoun, and the outskirts of Yater. The IDF said that it struck Hezbollah sites in Chihine, Tayibe, Blida, Meiss El Jabal, Aitaroun and Kfarkela and a Hezbollah weapons depot in Khiam in these airstrikes. On 19 September, the IDF said that it started carrying out airstrikes against Hezbollah to destroy its capabilities in southern Lebanon while heavy bombing was reported in Deir Qanoun En Nahr.
Calmodulin-like protein 5 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CALML5 gene. This gene encodes a novel calcium binding protein expressed in the epidermis and related to the calmodulin family of calcium binding proteins. Functional studies with recombinant protein demonstrate it does bind calcium and undergoes a conformational change when it does so. Abundant expression is detected only in reconstructed epidermis and is restricted to differentiating keratinocytes. In addition, it can associate with transglutaminase 3, shown to be a key enzyme in the terminal differentiation of keratinocytes. Human CALML5 genome location and CALML5 gene details page in the UCSC Genome Browser. Overview of all the structural information available in the PDB for UniProt: Q9NZT1 (Human Calmodulin-like protein 5) at the PDBe-KB.
Small clusters of cas genes are often located next to CRISPR repeat-spacer arrays. Collectively the 93 cas genes are grouped into 35 families based on sequence similarity of the encoded proteins. 11 of the 35 families form the cas core, which includes the protein families Cas1 through Cas9. A complete CRISPR-Cas locus has at least one gene belonging to the cas core. CRISPR-Cas systems fall into two classes. Class 1 systems use a complex of multiple Cas proteins to degrade foreign nucleic acids. Class 2 systems use a single large Cas protein for the same purpose. Class 1 is divided into types I, III, and IV; class 2 is divided into types II, V, and VI. The 6 system types are divided into 33 subtypes. Each type and most subtypes are characterized by a "signature gene" found almost exclusively in the category. Classification is also based on the complement of cas genes that are present. Most CRISPR-Cas systems have a Cas1 protein. The phylogeny of Cas1 proteins generally agrees with the classification system, but exceptions exist due to module shuffling. Many organisms contain multiple CRISPR-Cas systems suggesting that they are compatible and may share components. The sporadic distribution of the CRISPR-Cas subtypes suggests that the CRISPR-Cas system is subject to horizontal gene transfer during microbial evolution.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
===== Serpentes (Snakes) ===== Clade Scolecophidia (Blindsnakes) Family Typhlopidae Anilios bituberculatus, Prong-snouted blind snake (2021) Indotyphlops braminus, Brahminy blindsnake, (2022) Clade Booidea Family Pythonidae Morelia viridis, Green Tree Python (2022) Python bivittatus, Burmese python (2013) Python regius, Ball python (2020) Simalia boeleni, Boelen's Python (2022) Family Boidae Boa constrictor, Boa constrictor (2019) Charina bottae, Rubber boa, (2022) Clade Caenophidia Family Viperidae Azemiops feae, Fea's viper (2022) Bothrops jararaca, Jararaca lancehead, (2021) Crotalus adamanteus, Eastern diamondback rattlesnake (2021) Crotalus mitchellii pyrrhus, southwestern speckled rattlesnake (2014) Crotalus oreganus helleri, southern Pacific rattlesnake (2023) Crotalus tigris, Tiger rattlesnake (2021) Crotalus viridis, Great Plains rattlesnake (2018) Daboia siamensis, Eastern Russell's viper (2022) Deinagkistrodon acutus, Five-pacer viper (2016) Protobothrops flavoviridis, Okinawa Habu (2018) Protobothrops mucrosquamatus, Taiwanese Habu (2017, 2024) Trimeresurus albolabris, White-lipped tree pit viper (2024) Cerastes gasperetti, Arabian horned viper (2025) Family Homalopsidae Myanophis thanlyinesis, (No common name), (2021) Family Colubridae Ahaetulla prasina, Asian vine snake (2023) Arizona elegans occidentalis, California glossy snake (2022) Chrysopelea ornata, Ornate Flying Snake (2023) Diadophis punctatus, ring-necked snake (2023) Dolichophis caspius, Caspian whipsnake (2020) Elaphe carinata, King ratsnake (2024) Pantherophis guttatus, corn snake (2014) Pantherophis obsoletus, Leucistic Texas Rat Snake (2021) Ptyas mucosa, Oriental rat snake (2024) Thamnophis sirtalis, Common garter snake (2018) Thermophis baileyi, Tibetan hot-spring snake (2018) Family Elapidae Bungarus multicinctus, Many-banded krait (2022) Emydocephalus ijimae, Ijima's turtle-headed sea snake, (2019) Hydrophis curtus, Shaw's Sea Snake (2020) Hydrophis cyanocinctus, blue-banded sea snakes (2021) Hydrophis melanocephalus, slender-necked sea snake, (2019) Laticauda colubrina, yellow-lipped sea krait, (2019) Laticauda laticaudata, blue-lipped sea krait, (2019) Naja atra, Chinese cobra (2024) Naja naja, Indian cobra (2020) Notechis scutatus, mainland tiger snake (2022) Ophiophagus hannah, king cobra (2013) Pseudonaja textilis, eastern brown snake (2022)
=== Causes === The most common cause of periwound issues is excessive moisture present in the area surrounding the wound. Exudate from heavily draining wounds causes irritation of the periwound that may lead to maceration, excoriation, and otherwise compromise skin integrity. This type of damage is more common in chronic wounds due to exudate composition which differs from fluids produced in acute wounds or burns. Chronic wound exudate contains proteolytic enzymes and other components that degrade skin integrity and predispose it to inflammation. Moisture-associated skin damage can also be caused by bodily fluids or other contaminants that enter the periwound areas, for example, in patients with urinary or fecal incontinence, or colostomy patients. Other causes include dryness of the skin due to ageing and skin or systemic disorders, allergic reactions to wound care products, damage that may result from poor application and removal technique of adhesive products used in wound treatment, as well as exposure to infection or extrinsic contaminants at the time of wound dressing changes.
== Biological functions == Vitamin B3 has several vitamers that can act in place of each other, including nicotinic acid and nicotinamide. It is precursor of the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). These compounds are coenzymes for many dehydrogenases, participating in many hydrogen transfer processes. NAD is important in catabolism of fat, carbohydrate, protein, and alcohol, as well as cell signaling and DNA repair, and NADP mostly in anabolism reactions such as fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis. Vitamin intake recommendations made by several countries are that intakes of 14–18 mg/day are sufficient to meet the needs of healthy adults. Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide are both used for prevention and treatment of pellagra, a disease caused by lack of the vitamin.
Many exiled Poles could not return to the country for which they had fought because they belonged to political groups incompatible with the new communist regimes, or because they originated from areas of pre-war eastern Poland that were incorporated into the Soviet Union (see Polish population transfers (1944–1946)). Some were deterred from returning simply on the strength of warnings that anyone who had served in military units in the West would be endangered. Many Poles were pursued, arrested, tortured and imprisoned by the Soviet authorities for belonging to the Home Army or other formations (see Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1946)), or were persecuted because they had fought on the Western front.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a compound made of creatine bound to one water molecule. It appears as a white crystalline powder and is the most common solid form of creatine used in research and supplements.
Creatine is converted to phosphocreatine in muscle, which helps regenerate adenosine triphosphate during brief, high-intensity activity. The body also obtains creatine from foods such as meat and fish.
The creatine molecule is the same whether from food or supplements, but the monohydrate form includes a water molecule in its crystal structure. Once dissolved, the monohydrate and food-derived creatine are chemically identical in the body.
Creatine monohydrate is the hydrated solid form of creatine, a nitrogen-containing compound involved in cellular energy metabolism. It consists of one creatine molecule associated with one water molecule in a crystal lattice.